David Chenoweth, age 13, of Fountain Valley, California, for his question:

 How civilized were the Incas?

Civilization originally referred to the citizens of settled communities as contrasted to marauding barbarians. History refined it to mean the advancement of organized societies toward social justice and the improvement of everyday life. Its long story of trial and error includes all the dreams and efforts, good and bad, inherent in the complex nature of all mankind. Perhaps the success of true civilization is keyed to the people who ponder its meaning and weigh its worth.

  History records the rise and fall of many Empires, most of them tales of bloody conquest enforced by brutal tyrany. The Incas ruled their South American empire through almost five centuries, mostly by peaceful persuasion. Their story began around 1100 A.D., with a Quechua speaking tribe living high in the Andes of Peru. They wearied of herding llamas on their barren soil and moved doom to farm the fertile valley of Cusco. The territory was already occupied and legend tells how the Incas persuaded the original settlers to accept a merger.

They staged a glamorous sunrise ceremony. A young man, clothed in burnished gold and resplendent with glittering jewels, stood at the entrance to a cave, illumined by the glory of the morning. He was, they said, the divine Son of the Sun. The razzle dazzle captivated the audience into accepting the rule of the Inca and his sun religion. This legend represents a pattern used many times to extend and govern the vast Inca Empire.

One by one the scattered tribes of the Andes were merged under the Inca's glamorous but benevolent rule. Each had equal status under the Emperor. Local customs were unchallenged, though everything was done to encourage trade, to exchange ideas and speed communications throughout the realm. Local chiefs traveled to Cusco to discuss their problems and their sons were educated there in the capital city.

Not that the Incas ignored military might. They maintained an impressive army and once routed a horde of barbarians. Well trained, well armed warriors accompanied the Emperor on his frequent travels. But peace was preferred and everything done to prove it worthwhile. The Inca and his scholars planned and strove to improve the lives of all the citizens. They were master builders and the remains of their cities     and temples, roads and fortresses can be seen today. They were talented astronomers, artists, weavers and craftsmen. Above all they were agricultural geniuses and later from their terraced farms came many food items on the world's menu.

  The empire reached its Golden Age in the 1400s. Later it extended, perhaps beyond the workable limits of a unified government. The Spanish found it somewhat in decline, though still rich in gold and fabulous treasure. They described Atahualpa, the ruling Inca, as a handsome nobleman, grave and majestic. Later they held him for ransom and strangled him in front of his wailing family. Now it is your turn to decide what was civilized in this chapter of human history    and what was not.